Western Political Philosophy

“That man is wisest who, like Socrates, realizes that his wisdom is worthless” – Plato

Western Political Philosophy

What is the most fitting political arrangement for a given society? Is there a best form of government towards which every human society should tend and, if there is, what is it? What principles should inspire a political leader? These and related questions have been at the hearth of the reflection on political philosophy. According to the Ancient Greek perspective, the quest for the most appropriate structure of the State is the ultimate philosophical goal.

For both Plato and Aristotle, it is only within a politically well-organized society that the individual can find true blessedness. For Plato, the functioning of a State parallels the one of a human soul. The soul has three parts: rational, spiritual, and appetitive; so the State has three parts: the ruling class, corresponding to the rational part of the soul; the auxiliaries, corresponding to the spiritual part; and the productive class, corresponding to the appetitive part. Plato’s Republic discusses the ways in which a State can be most appropriately run, and by so doing Plato purports to teach a lesson also about the most appropriate human to run her life.

Aristotle emphasized even more than Plato the dependence between the individual and the State: it is in our biological constitution to engage in social living and only within a well-run society we can fully realize ourselves as human. Humans are a "political animals."

Most Western philosophers and political leaders have been influenced by Plato and Aristotle’s writings. The British empiricist Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) and the Florentine humanist Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) are the most important examples.

Politics, Economics, and the Law

Politics has always been inextricably linked to economics. The study of political science requires an understanding of the basic principles of economics. Analogous considerations can be made with respect to the relationship between politics and the law. In a globalized world,  political science requires a global perspective and the capacity to compare political, economical, and legal systems around the world. The most influential principle according to which modern democracies are arranged is the principle of the division of powers: legislative, executive, and judiciary. This organization follows the development of political theorizing during the age of Enlightenment, the theory of State power developed by French philosopher Montesquieu (1689-1755).

Political philosophy asks questions like: "What is a government?", "Why are governments needed?", "What makes a government legitimate?", "What rights and freedoms should a government protect?", "What duties do citizens owe to a legitimate government, if any?" and "When may a government be legitimately overthrown, if ever?"

Ancient Political Philosophy

Western political philosophy has its origins in Ancient Greece, when city-states were experimenting with various forms of political organization including monarchy, tyranny, aristocracy, oligarchy and democracy. Among the most important classical works of political philosophy are Plato's "The Republic" and Aristotle's "Politics". Later, St. Augustine's "The City of God" was a Christianized version of these which emphasized the role of the state in applying mercy as a moral example. After St. Thomas Aquinas's reintroduction and Christianization of Aristotle's political works, Christian Scholastic political philosophy dominated European thought for centuries.

In Ancient China, Confucius, Mencius (372 - 189 B.C.) and Mozi (470 - 391 B.C.) sought to restore political unity and stability through the cultivation of virtue, while the Legalist school sought the same end by the imposition of discipline. Similarly, in Ancient India, Chanakya (350 - 283 B.C.) developed a viewpoint in his "Arthashastra" which recalls both the Chinese Legalists and the later Political Realist theories of  the Italian philosopher Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli.

The Arabic scholar Ibn Khaldun (1332 - 1406), a great political theorist defines government as "an institution which prevents injustice other than such as it commits itself." The political ideas of Muhammad Abduh (1849 - 1905), Al-Afghani (1838 - 1897), Sayyid Qutb (1906 - 1966), Abul Ala Mawdudi (1903 - 1979), Ali Shariati (1933 - 1977) and Ruhollah Khomeini (1902 - 1989) have gained increasing popularity in the 20th Century.

Secular political philosophy began to emerge in Europe after centuries of theological political thought during the Renaissance. Machiavelli's influential works, "The Prince" and "The Discourses", described a pragmatic and consequentialist view of politics, where good and evil are mere means to an end. The Englishman Thomas Hobbes constructed the theory of the social contract - the implied agreements by which people form nations and maintain a social order. He expanded this prototype of Contractarianism in the first half of the 17th Century, culminating in his "Leviathan" of 1651, which verged on Totalitarianism.

Modern Political Philosophy

During the Age of Enlightenment, Europe entered a sort of golden age of political philosophy with the works of John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Baron de Montesquieu.

 John Locke’s ideas on Liberalism and Libertarianism are reflected in the American Declaration of Independence. His works also influenceed the philosophies of Voltaire and Rousseau.   Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s  contractarianist political philosophy influenced the French Revolution. His 1762 work "The Social Contract" became one of the most influential works of political philosophy in the Western tradition.  The Baron de Montesquieu’s (1889 - 1755) articulation of the separation of powers within government is implemented in many constitutions throughout the world today.

Two major questions were broached by Enlightenment political philosophers:

1. By what right or need do people form states?

2. What is the best form for a state?

Capitalism emphasized  on privately-owned means of production and the market economy. It  became institutionalized in Europe between the 16th and 19th Centuries, and particularly during the Industrial Revolution. In his 1859 essay "On Liberty" and other works, John Stuart Mill argued that Utilitarianism requires that political arrangements satisfy the liberty principle, i.e. the sole purpose of law should be to stop people from harming others.

By the mid-19th Century, Karl Marx developed his theory of Dialectical Materialism and Marxism. By the late 19th Century, concepts like Socialism, Libertarianism Conservatism and Anarchism were established, and the trade union movement and syndicalism also gained some prominence. The Russian Revolution of 1917 brought the philosophy of Communism. After the First World War, ideologies of Nationalism, Fascism and Totalitarianism began to take shape in Italy and Nazi Germany.

In the 19th and early 20th Centuries, the Feminist movement developed its theories and moral philosophies concerned with gender inequalities and equal rights for women, as part of a general concern for Egalitarianism. After the Second World War, there was a marked trend towards a pragmatic approach to political issues, rather than a philosophical one, and post-colonial, civil rights and multicultural thought became significant.

Major Doctrines

Under the heading of Political Philosophy, the major doctrines or theories include:

·        Anarchism

·        Capitalism

·        Communism

·        Communitarianism

·        Conservatism

·        Contractarianism

·        Egalitarianism

·        Fascism

·        Feminism

·        Liberalism

·        Libertarianism

·        Marxism

·        Nationalism

·        Socialism

·        Totalitarianism

Adapted from

Borghini, Andrea. "Political Science." ThoughtCo, Dec. 4, 2019, thoughtco.com/what-is-political-science-2670741.

Mastin, L. (2009, January). Existence and Consciousness. Retrieved [Month, day, year], from https://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_metaphysics.html.

Aristotle

Aristotle

Aristotle was born in 384 B.C.  His father was a physician in the court of the king of Macedonia. Later Aristotle became the tutor of the king’s grand son who became Alexander the Great.

Aristotle enrolled himself as a student of philosophy in the Academy run the great philosopher Plato.  After Plato’s death, Aristotle opened his own school of philosophy, Lyceum. It had a fine library of books, maps and even specimens of animals.

Aristotle classified life into inanimate and animate.  His scheme of classification has laid the foundation for modern science. He called human beings rational animals. They could think and question i.e. they are able to engage in philosophical thought. He understood that only human beings engaged themselves in philosophical games. He termed man as a thinker.

He wrote a treatise about man as a maker of art, imitating reality that delights the viewer or reader or listener.  Man created poetry, music and paintings, and hence he was a maker. He called it ‘Poetics’. The Greek original word for poetry is ‘poein’ or to ‘make’. Hence, the poet is a maker.

In 1498 the Poetics was first translated into Latin by Giorgio Valla. Philip Sydney shows the influence of Aristotlean thinking that he talks about mimesis and how it gives delight.  In 1867 the modern engagement with Aristotle began and many translations came up. Aristotle must have known hundreds of plays written by Sophocles, Euripides and Aeschylus.  He wrote in the most prestigious dialect of the Greek language – Attic. It was the language that was used by Plato himself.

Mimesis

Aristotle’s teacher first and foremost introduced the concept of mimesis.  He used this term in 7 different ways. He used the term as ‘representation’. What is the nature of artistic representation?  According to Plato it is different from reality. Art portrays the way reality appears to the artist. Literature depicts society as the writer conceives it or understands it. The actual society may be different from these perceptions of the artists or the writers.  We all judge the world around us by the way it appears to us. Actually truth is much higher that it is difficult for us to understand the real truth of any situation. Plato believed literature should be judged from its ethical and political standards. He said writers tried to please the audience by writing about ideologies that are popular in society. He shows no interest in the artistic value of literature. He was a censorious judge of literature and culture. To him mimesis is mere imitation of literary values by people, making them live a world of artificial responses. He wrote about plays that were performed in public and which were in turn imitated by the fans.

Aristotle developed a different ideology. He separates poetry or literature from history and politics. According to him literature inhabits an aesthetic sphere. He says we should analyse literature and evaluate it from aesthetic terms. In Poetics, he offers a technical and formalistic interpretation of the genre  tragic drama.  He looks at tragedy not only as a performance but also as a literary piece. Literature deals with imagination to entertain people. He articulate the notion of fictionality in western thinking.  For Aristotle, mimesis is a fictional representation, which if composed correctly will improve its readers  both intellectually and emotionally.  

Catharsis

Aristotle offered an original theory of the audience’s response to tragic literature. Why does a viewer experience pleasure at the artistic representation of tragic events? These tragic instances would horrify him in real life. To this Plato says that a tragedy led the viewer to be more emotional and less rational. According to Aristotle, tragic literature arouses a very specific set of emotions – pity and fear. It also brings about a healthy and pleasurable experience called catharsis.

The word catharsis means purgation or purification. He uses the word as a technical term.  Tragic plots are designed to arouse pity and fear in the audience. We feel pity for good people. No one feels sorry for the pain of an evil man. Pity comes when a good man has a flaw in his character which gives him suffering. Tragedy  deals with human life and its limitations. In the course of a tragedy, the hero must experience a reversal of fortune. His suffering gives us a certain fear about life. As Aristotle puts it, we pity the character, and fear for ourselves. Why do fear for ourselves? Because we identify ourselves with the hero to a certain extent. Also, we know we are away from them and we worry if the same pain will touch us too later in life.  Viewing becomes a pleasurable and healthy experience.

Some scholars view catharsis as a cognitive experience as it brings wisdom to the viewers. Others feel it is a strong emotional experience leaving us relieved. Releasing and purging emotions produce pleasure.

Aristotle did not define catharsis. He did not explain the term. Hence lots of interpretations have come up for the term. In  a treatise called ‘Parts of Animals’, he says that technical and artistic arrangement of ugly materials in art makes them appear beautiful.  

Aristotle offers a detailed typology of literary plots, character and styles in Poetics. He was the first to give a systematic analysis of the art of literature.

We can call Plato’s approach to art as historical. Aristotle’s approach can be termed as aesthetic.

Reference

Adler, J. Mortimer. Aristotle for Everybody: Difficult Thought Made Easy.  New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997.

Whalley, George. Aristotle’s Poetics. Canada: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1997.

Nightingale, Andrea.  “Mimesis: Ancient Greek Literary Theory”.  Ed. Patricia Waugh.  Literary Theory and Criticism: An Oxford Guide. International Student Edition. Oxford University Press,

மரம்

நான் பிறந்த கதை சிறிது 

சின்னஞ் சிறிய கொட்டை 

என் வீரியக் கதிர் அதில் 

அது வெடித்துச் சிதறியதால் 

என் உயிர் ஓர் உடல் பெற்றது 

வான் தந்த சில சொட்டுகளில் 

வளர்ந்தேன்  வளர்பிறையாய் 

பச்சையாய்ப்   பரவினேன் 

பாரை வளைக்க யோசித்தேன் 

பக்கத்தில் இருந்த பகாசுரன் 

பழைய கட்டிடம் பார்த்தேன் 

சும்மாய் சுமையை இருந்தது 

சுயமாய் யோசித்து ஆராய்ந்தேன் 

சுலபமாய் வீழ்த்தலாம் இதை 

சுளுவாய் என் வேர்களை விட்டேன் 

முறித்தன அவை எலும்புகளை 

முதுகெலும்பை நொடித்தன 

அத்தனை கற்களும் என் கீழ் 

அறிவியலை அடக்கினேன் 

கான்க்ரீட் தகர்ந்தது  கனவாய் 

கணக்குகள் பொய்த்தன  மெதுவாய் 

எங்கும் என் பச்சை இலைகள் 

யாதுமாகி நின்றன  ஆங்கே

 

யாரோ  பேசினார் என் காதுகேட்க

 

'இந்த ஆலமரம் மோசம்

இந்தக் கட்டிடத்தை உடைத்து 

இடத்தையே காலி பண்ணி 

நாசம் செய்துவிட்டது'  

The Sky

It saw everything silently

Did not like to comment

Had nothing to say

just lived and lived

வானம் 

அவன்  வானத்தைப் பார்த்துக் கொண்டிருந்தான்.  பார்க்கப் பார்க்க அவன் சிறிதாய்ப் போனான். பிரபஞ்சம் தன் கடமையைச் செய்து கொண்டிருந்தது. ராசி என்று நாம் பேர் வைத்திருக்கும்  இயற்கை நம் குழந்தைத்தனத்தை ரசித்துக்கொண்டிருந்தது. நம்பிக்கை இருந்தால் தானே வாழ முடியும். வெங்காயத்தோல் போன்ற வாழ்க்கையில் நம்பிக்கை இல்லாதவன் தாக்குப் பிடிக்க முடியாது  என்பது நட்சத்திரங்களுக்குத்   தெரிந்து  தான் இருந்தது.   

தினம் தினம் பார்த்தாலும் வானம் சலிக்கவில்லை அவனுக்கு. ஏதோ உறவினர்களைப்  பார்ப்பது போல் தான் இருந்தது. என் மூச்சு என் உடலை விட்டு எங்கு சென்று  பூக்கும்  என்று யோசித்தான். தினமும்  யோசித்தான். 

காற்று ஓங்கி அவன் முகத்தில் அடித்தது. இந்தக் காற்று இனி எங்கு சென்று பிறக்கும் என்று யோசித்தான். காற்றில் நாம் இருக்கிறோமா?  காற்று நமக்குள் உள்ளதா? வானம் அவனைப் பார்த்துக் கொண்டேயிருந்தது.  நீயும் நானும் ஒன்றே என்றது. 

அமைதி

அமைதி 

ஆர்ப்பாட்டமில்லாமல்  ஆர்ப்பரிக்காமல் 

அமைதியாய்  வாழும்  அன்பு 

அது  தேடுவதில்லை நாடுவதில்லை 

அவல வாழ்க்கை  வாழ்வதுமில்லை.

கொடுக்கும்  கொடுக்க மட்டும் செய்யும் 

எடுத்து  கணக்குப் பார்க்காத எண்ணம் 

ஆனால்  அது  கடைசியில் ஆளும் 

அதுவே  அதன்  சாதனை வலை ஆகும். 

 குடியரசு தினம் 

வந்தது வந்தது நல்லது வந்தது 

வந்தது நல்லது தானே 

சுதந்திரம் வந்தது தானே 

இதை நிந்தனை செய்யாது 

நித்தமும் நாடிடு 

சந்தத் தமிழ் தனில்  தேனே 

ஆண்ட அவர்  சென்றார் 

அடுத்தது யோசிக்க வேண்டும் 

மன்னர்கள் இல்லை 

மக்கள் தான் மன்னர் 

என்று நாம் மாறி விட்டோம் 

எம்மை நாம் மாற்ற வேண்டும் 

எப்படி நம்மை  நாம் ஆள்வது 

என்று நாம் யோசிக்க வேண்டும் 

சட்டங்கள் வேண்டும் 

திட்டங்கள்  வேண்டும் 

சகலத்திற்கும்  ஆணைகள் வேண்டும் 

சராசரி பார்க்க வேண்டும் 

சாலை விதிகள் வேண்டும் 

சமமாய் நடத்த வேண்டும் 

கல்விக்கும் கல்யாணத்திற்கும் 

கடமைக்கும்  கலைக்கும் 

கட்டாயம் கருவிகள் வேண்டும் 

கண்காணிப்பும் வேண்டும் 

இத்தனையும் எழுதப்பட வேண்டும் 

எழுத்து ஆணையாய்ப் பிறக்க வேண்டும் 

அறிவு  ஆணையை  எழுத வேண்டும் 

அதை அறிஞர் ஆதரிக்க வேண்டும் 

அனைவரின் எண்ணமே ஆட்சியாகும் 

அதுவே ஜனநாயகம் ஆகும் 

அப்படி எழுதிட ஆகிடும் வருடம் 

ஆனதே வருடங்கள் மூன்று .

நாற்பத்தி ஏழில் வந்த சுதந்திரம் 

ஐம்பதில் அமலுக்கு வந்தது 

அதுவே  நம்  நாட்டு குடியரசு 

நம் வாழ்வின் திருவின்  அரசு.